Since its establishment in the 4th century, Istanbul has served as a hub for various migration movements. This ongoing mobility has been one of the foundational elements shaping the city’s social, economic, and cultural fabric throughout its history. Due to its strategic location, the movement of diverse ethnic and religious communities has played a central role in constructing Istanbul’s multilayered identity. As part of this series of research papers, the present study examines Istanbul as a critical destination in global migration trajectories, with a particular focus on migration from the Caucasus.
In the second half of the 19th century, Istanbul emerged as a significant destination for waves of migrants from the Caucasus, driven by a complex interplay of imperial conflict, forced displacement, and resettlement policies. The aftermath of the Russo-Turkish wars and the Russian Empire’s expansion into the North Caucasus triggered widespread upheaval, particularly among Circassian, Chechen, Abkhazian, and other Muslim communities. These groups faced exile, violence, and assimilationist pressures. As the Ottoman Empire sought to position itself as a protective homeland for displaced Muslim populations, many of these migrants were initially resettled in the empire’s Anatolian and Balkan provinces. However, Istanbul attracted a significant number due to its administrative centrality, economic opportunities, and existing networks of Caucasian communities. This chapter explores the social, political, and spatial dynamics of this migration wave to Istanbul, situating it within the broader context of late Ottoman refugee policy and urban transformation.
By the 19th century, the population settled in Istanbul had become notably diverse. The rural population abandoning agricultural life, those displaced by Russian imperial expansion into the Caucasus, and Europeans arriving for trade all formed part of Istanbul’s evolving migration map. These overlapping layers demonstrate that the city’s demographic landscape was shaped not only by internal dynamics but also by trans-imperial and global movements.
The Russian Empire’s 19th-century policies in Muslim-majority regions spurred the migration of Circassians, Abkhazians, Ossetians, Dagestanis, and other Caucasian peoples to Ottoman lands. Following the 1864 Russian conquest of the Northwest Caucasus—modern-day Sochi, Krasnodar, and Adygea—the forced deportation of Circassians, known in Ottoman sources as the “Circassian Genocide,” intensified this migration. The Crimean War (1853–1856) and the 1877–78 Ottoman-Russian War (known in Turkish as the “93 War”) further entrenched Russian control in the region. Attempts at forced Christianization, the settlement of Slavic populations, and obligations such as taxation and conscription led many Caucasian Muslims to seek refuge in the Ottoman Empire.
While the Ottoman administration developed resettlement policies for these immigrants, many chose to remain in Istanbul, attracted by the capital’s economic opportunities and access to state support. Although some migrants were directed toward Anatolia and Rumelia, Istanbul’s role as the imperial capital made it a logical destination. During this period, Circassian and Dagestani communities settled in neighborhoods such as Üsküdar and Beykoz on the Asian side of the city.
The mass migration from Crimea, Kazan, and the Caucasus in the late 19th century transformed Istanbul into a new home for thousands of migrants. Archival records from the Ottoman Prime Ministry indicate that migrants of Caucasian origin settled heavily in neighborhoods such as Fatih, Aksaray, Beyazıt, Üsküdar, and Kadıköy. The Ottoman state viewed these newcomers not only as a means of demographic reinforcement but also as a political and military asset.
The classical Ottoman millet system—the cornerstone of social organization—underwent major transformation in the 19th century, influenced by modern nation-state pressures and the interventions of European powers. Nationalist movements in Greece and Montenegro led to the empire’s territorial loss, while the religious diversity of Ottoman society, particularly its Christian populations such as Greeks and Armenians, complicated foreign relations. Although the Tanzimat (1839) and Islahat (1856) Edicts promised legal equality among citizens, the disintegration of the empire and the rise of nationalism turned the “minority issue” into one of the most defining themes of modern political history.
In this shifting political landscape, the arrival of Muslim immigrants from the Caucasus significantly increased the Muslim population in Istanbul. Over time, many of these migrants played critical roles in Ottoman bureaucracy and the military. During the reign of Sultan Abdülhamid II, Circassians in particular rose to prominence in elite military units such as the palace guard.
Caucasian migrants also contributed to the urban fabric of Istanbul. In neighborhoods such as Fatih, Aksaray, Beyazıt, Üsküdar, and Kadıköy, they established social infrastructure shaped by mosques, markets, and coffeehouses, leaving a lasting imprint on the city’s cultural identity. They participated in local economies through trades such as leatherworking, carpet weaving, and carpentry, often becoming members of the city’s artisan guilds.
The rise of the Committee of Union and Progress and the strengthening of Turkish nationalism in the early 20th century coincided with the emergence of immigrant intellectuals such as Yusuf Akçura, Hüseyinzade Ali, and Ahmet Ağaoğlu. These figures, many of Crimean and Tatar origin, played a pivotal role in shaping the political thought of the late Ottoman Empire. Teachers from these communities also contributed to the modernization of the educational system, serving in institutions like Darülfünun (later Istanbul University) and Darülmuallimin (Teacher Training School).
In conclusion, the loss of territories in the Caucasus and the repressive policies of the Russian Empire generated a vast wave of forced migration, positioning the Ottoman Empire—and especially Istanbul—as a key destination. These migrants, uprooted under difficult circumstances, contributed not only to the military and political spheres but also deeply shaped the social, cultural, and economic life of the Ottoman capital. Their legacy continues to be felt in Istanbul’s demography and political history.
This chapter has explored the complex and often painful journey of Caucasian emigrants who settled in Istanbul during the 19th century. Their stories illustrate how imperial conflict, exile, and resettlement policy intersected to reshape the city’s social fabric and reaffirm Istanbul’s role as both refuge and crossroads. As the series continues, the focus will shift to European emigrants—merchants, artisans, political exiles—whose arrival in the Ottoman capital marked another layer of demographic and cultural transformation. By examining these successive migration waves, this research seeks to deepen our understanding of Istanbul as a layered space of mobility, negotiation, and coexistence.
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